A Historical Occasion: The “First” Circassian Conference in the USA

A Historical Occasion: The “First” Circassian Conference in the USA

by Katia Tokhtamish

On May 21, 2007, the Jamestown Foundation and the Circassian Cultural Institute held a conference entitled ''The Circassians: Past, Present, and Future". The date of the conference also coincided with the Memorial Day of the Circassian people. Held in Washington, DC, numerous scholars, professors, dignitaries, and other interested parties attended the event. Topics ranged from the historical to the political, with many questions posed to the panelists from the audience.

The conference started off with a short introductory speech by the Foundation's President, Mr. Glen Howard. Opening remarks were then made by Mr. Ed Youghar, President of the Circassian Cultural Institute. The event then proceeded to a speech made by Mr. Paul Henze, a former scholar with the Rand Corporation in Washington, DC. The title of his speech "Who are the Circassians? A Historical Perspective on the Circassians and Imperial Russia" touched upon many interesting points in Circassian history and gave many in the audience a broad overview of who the Circassians are as a people and as a nation.

Mr. Henze spoke briefly also about the history of the Circassians; from their settlements on the Black Sea shore to the present day. The Circassians in general lived simple lives, and live in fertile valleys. They made good use of the land they were living on, and perfected an agricultural-based lifestyle. Due to this, and for other reasons, they never quite developed an urban civilization. They were also quite active in trade and managed to develop contacts from all over the world (and in particular with northern and Eastern peoples). Their sense of unity was very similar to that of the Greeks; a strong consciousness of being one nation right up till the time Russians began to penetrate the North Caucasus region.

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Circassians began to send young men to other regions to serve as soldiers. At the time, while the agricultural aspect of the region was flourishing, this caused some strain among them due to their inclination to have large families. Through time, it became harder to accommodate for them, so young people were sent to other regions to seek their fortunes. It was through conditions like this that the first members of the Mamluk dynasty came to Egypt. Men and women felt comfortable moving around, but always managed to retain their roots and never forget who they were. While these “expatriates” were roaming the world and creating their fortunes and reputations, the ones at home continued to maintain their solidarity, sense of identity, and culture.

The first wave of Russian intruders to the Caucasus region actually came under fairly peaceful terms, and was mostly comprised of Cossacks. They were quite dissatisfied with Russian society and sought to establish themselves in a semi-independent region. Most of them developed good relations with Circassians; during the period of Ivan the Terrible, contacts with princes were established. The Circassians then created connections with the Ottoman Empire (which was mostly limited to trade and sending young men to serve in the military).

The major problems between the Russians and Circassians developed in the 19th century. The Russians at that point had been battling with Daghestanis and Chechens in the Eastern region of the Caucasus. A pseudo-religious war developed then between the mountaineers and the Russians, since the Russians’ main goal was to dominate the native population through missionary activities and military domination. As Imam Shamil (of Daghestani origin) grew stronger in influence and control in the East, the Russians grew concerned and began to concentrate on the central and eastern parts of the region. Sadly, the Russian army was no match for them and in 1859, Shamil surrendered to the Russians.

After they managed to subdue the Eastern mountaineers, the Russian court then turned its attention to the Circassians, who unfortunately could not defend themselves against this alien force. They were not properly equipped militarily, financially, and strategically. No strong central or local leadership existed at the time, so it was practically easy for the Russian army to take advantage of the situation and manipulate it to the fullest extent. Some actually did convert to Christianity at the time, although most still continued to practice khabza and Circassian culture as they had for centuries. Around this time, Islam had also begun to infiltrate the region (mostly due to Ottoman influence). Thus, a competition of sorts developed between Ottoman and Russian domination.

The Russians began to build forts along the Black Sea coast, and operated along a “divide and conquer” strategy. In other words, a mass campaign took place in which they sought to divide the Circassians among themselves and create hostilities and problems. This is a tactic that has been used since the time of the Romans. Unfortunately, it succeeded.

Mr. Henze maintains that the Adyghe people did indeed have a nation, in the sense that the ancient Greeks did. While they did not have a structured and unified political structure, it was a varied one. Cultural and social factors are also a major point, and in the Circassians' case, it is a crucial one as we have one of the most ancient cultures existing in the world today. Mr. Henze also stated that Circassians basically were overwhelmed by a foreign force and that they are correct in their assertions that what happened to them in the 19th century was indeed a mass genocide.

Since those tragic events that took place more than 100 years ago, Circassians have been in competition with Armenians who have maintained that they were the most abused people in the Caucasus. While they also have indeed suffered under tragic conditions, they have also tended to downplay the suffering other Caucasian nations have endured. In other words, their suffering overshadowed that of others.

At the time of these tragic events, there was scant reporting of the turmoil of the region. With the exception of official British consular reports (which are currently archived), and perhaps Russian documents which are kept from public view, there is little information on what really occurred during this terrible time.

We do know that shiploads of people were sent off from the Black Sea coast. Those who managed to survive the journey were dumped on the shores of the Ottoman Empire like cattle. Unfortunately for these refugees, the Ottoman Empire was not capable of handling much else for them besides making sure they set foot on Ottoman soil.

Mr. Henze remarked that the situation in 1864 for the Adyghe people was much more acute than that of the events of 1944, in which Stalin exiled several hundreds of thousands of peoples from their homes to parts unknown in Siberia and Central Asia. Essentially, the entire nation was moved from its native home to foreign lands. Circassians are, in essence, a remarkable example of a mass genocide that did not quite succeed. This can be seen from the 800 thousand to 1 million individuals who managed to escape the turmoil of war with the Russians and forced evacuation of the Ottomans.

Today, the descendents of these people are still living in foreign lands but are conscious of their origins. These descendents have made major contributions to their host countries, which is evident no matter where they are. Today, 7 to 10 million Turkish citizens can claim Caucasian blood. During the period of Ataturk’s reign in Turkey, Turkish officials grew concerned about solidifying Turkish nationalism. As a result, other nations were not recognized and minorities were discouraged from speaking their native languages and practicing their cultures.

Mr. Henze concluded his speech on a positive note, stating that there was much promise among us. Hopefully, through the diaspora’s actions, they can help those who have remained in the Caucasus to revive their old customs and way of life and bring them back to their glory days.

The next speaker, Dr. Kemal Karpat, spoke briefly about the Circassian migration to Ottoman Turkey in the 19th century. A Senior Professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Dr. Karpat is an established figure in his field and has spoken about issues regarding the Ottoman Empire on several occasions.

Dr. Karpat’s interest in the Circassians is mostly based on personal and scholarly reasons. The personal side comes from childhood stories heard from elders about the Adyghe people. He described the Circassians as a “beautiful and brave people”. He also spoke of the time he was browsing through English archives, and it was there that he first came upon accounts of the mass killings of the Circassian people by the Russian army. When the defeat of the Circassian people became certain for the Russians, a particular commander of its army wanted to be sure of their end. Thus, the army delayed its attack on the natives until the brother of one of the leaders arrived. The next day, this commander stood by and watched as an entire group of unarmed Circassian fighters were slaughtered in front of him.

Dr. Karpat then wondered why so much attention was focused on the sufferings of Armenians and Greeks, but nothing for the Circassians, and hypothesized that perhaps this was due to their status as Muslims. Even then, Muslims were not treated on equal terms with those from other faiths. (Note: The professor is currently writing a book related to this issue with 2 other Turkish scholars.)

According to the professor, the number of Circassian immigrants to the Ottoman state was between 600-800,000 individuals. An equal amount unfortunately perished while crossing the Black Sea or succumbed to diseases after their arrival to the Turkish state. From 1856 to 1914, over seven million people from the Caucasus and the Balkans migrated to current day Turkey in the span of 20 years, a huge development at the time. From 1865-1885, Turkey’s population rose 42%, despite the wars raging at the time.

Dr. Karpat then took the audience back to the 16th century, when the first contacts between the Turks and Circassians were developed. A sort of Ottoman suzerainty was established in the Caucasus, with authority being left in the hands of five “beys”. These beys were greatly influenced by Ottoman leaders, as well as the fact that Istanbul at the time was a major stopping point for Russian and Central Asian Muslims on their way to Mecca for hajj. The primary reason for this was due to their avoidance of traveling through Persia, as it was Shi’ite and most of them were of the Sunni inclination. Due to this factor, as well as the fact that the caliph was established in Istanbul, it is easy to understand why the Muslim world gave Istanbul such influence. Istanbul became a second home to Circassians as well. Along with soldiers for the growing Ottoman army, administrators were also sent to the empire to help manage the affairs of the sultans and its governors.

On another interesting note, it is noted that all of the caliphs of the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century had Circassian roots. For example, Abdulhamit II, the greatest Ottoman sultan of the 19th century, was half Circassian. His wife was also the daughter of a Ubykh chief. He was quite conscious of who he was, with his daughter Aisha noting later on that he would often tell people that his family had Ubykh roots. Therefore, in some sense, Circassians ruled the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century.

In 1878, an administrative office of sorts was created. This was done to accommodate primarily Circassian migrants who had been relocated from the Rumeli region of the empire (they had originally been forced to settle in this region from 1862-1865) to Anatolia and the Middle East. In some sense, this was quite unusual, especially since the Ottomans had stressed Muslim unity for all its citizens and how nationality was not as important. However, it is speculated that due to his roots, he was concerned about the plight of the Caucasian migrants, and this office was thus established as a result of this.

In 1881, Sultan Abdulhamit issued a statement that more or less commanded that the Circassian “muhajir”, or migrants, be allowed to settle where they wished, even if it was according to their tribes. In those times, Ottoman policy contradicted this action, preferring that peoples were divided; thus, it was a very significant decision from the Sultan’s part.

From a scholarly standpoint, Dr. Karpat asserts that Circassian presence in the Ottoman region made a huge impact on modern day Turkey. While there was a powerful sense of pride for Turks in their Ottoman Empire legacy, their sense of nationality did not come to full circle until the late 19th century. The rise of the modern Turkish nation is rooted in the creation of a new society, with its migrants playing a central role in this. The professor then ended his speech here and made room for the next speaker of the day, Ms. Fatima Tlisova.

One of the conference's more spirited speakers, Ms. Tlisova spoke passionately about the plight of Circassians in the Caucasus, nationalism issues they face there, and the troubles individuals endure while trying to assert their identity in a Russian-controlled Caucasus. Ms. Tlisova was formally a North Caucasus Correspondent with the Regnum News Agency, based in Moscow, Russia.

Ms. Tlisova started off with a visual example of Russian bulldozers digging up bones of Circassians who had perished during the exile, in order to make way for a ski resort. This, in her opinion, was a prime example of the treatment Circassians have received from the Russian government for the past few centuries. In 1867, a mere three years after the exile of hundreds of thousands of Circassian, Russian archaeological teams were sent to the Caucasus. What they found was nothing but stunning. Thousands of years of archaeological evidence were dug up- proof that Circassian culture was present in the region since eras past. For the next century or so, these dugs continued, with several thousand artifacts being shipped to museums and other centers in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Nevertheless, there has not been one mention of the fact that these items belonged to the Circassian nation. They are now proudly presented in Russian museums as evidence of their culture; however, this is a blatant lie. In other words, the culture of the Circassians was effortlessly stolen from them.

After the mass exile, and until the time of the Communist regime, the remaining Circassians in the region were divided into three regions: Karachay-Cherkessk, Kabardino-Balkaria, and Adygheya. Borders were blurred, making cultural and economic ties difficult to maintain. This, evidently, bore a great psychological strain on the Circassian people, thus dividing them further. People began to differentiate between themselves according to tribes and regions, further breaking up the unity that was once strong among the Adyghe people.

Ms. Tlisova then spoke of a horrific event which took place in 1937. In this year, over fifty Circassian scientists (linguists, poets, physicists, and so on) were arrested and either executed or disappeared, never to be heard from again. This brings to mind the period of Pol Pot in Cambodia, in which he had all the intellectuals of the country rounded up and shot. The idea behind this was to root out all those who would question and challenge the authorities, leaving the simple people to live in fear. The Communist regime sought to do the exact same thing in the Caucasus, as well as other non-Russian regions in the former Soviet Union.

In addition to murdering some of the most prominent Circassian intellectuals of the time, the Soviets also destroyed over 20,000 documents that were being kept in archives. Stories, poems, epos, historical documents, and other materials were needlessly burned. Unfortunately, many of those documents pertained to the history and culture of the Circassian people and can never be regained. In other words, the Circassian nation was being erased from history.

As time went by, things dramatically worsened. The leaders of the three republics were primarily puppets for the Russian regime, and did not do much to improve the basic needs and rights of their people. Any decree that strived to help preserve the local traditions and culture were obliterated. For example, in 2002 a mandatory law that allowed the study of the Circassian language in schools was taken way, thus allowing the Circassian language to dramatically decline in schools. All other subjects in public schools are taught in Russian; thus, students become accustomed to speaking and thinking in Russian. One can theorize that this is, in essence, a linguistic genocide of the Circassian language. Even textbooks used in schools make no mention of Circassians at all. This in turn does nothing to foster pride and respect for one's own culture. Overall, a serious and terrible turn of events in occurring in the homeland right now. Sadly, little can be done, since these are things that are mandated by law and can only be changed through the Russian federal system- a near impossibility in itself.

Dr. Matthew Light, an assistant professor at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst, gave an interesting presentation about the proposed merger of the Adygheya Republic with Krasnodarski Krai and touched upon many angles regarding the issue, such as the following questions:

1) Why would it be beneficial/harmful for this merger to take place?

2) Could an alternative be proposed that would be better for the Circassians in the long run?

3) What are the internal/external factors influencing the situation?

4) Who are the players in this decision?

After a brief coffee break, the audience was ready to hear from the remainder of the panelists, some of whom had traveled far to participate in the conference. One of these individuals was Mr. Ali Berzeg, from the city of Maykop, in the Adygheya Republic. Mr. Berzeg started his presentation off with a few basic facts about the denial of Russian authorities regarding the Circassian genocide. As far back as 1992, requests to acknowledge the event were sent to Moscow, but till date there has been no answer returned. During the civil war in the former Yugoslavia, several hundred Kosovan Circassians were taken out of the region and resettled in Adygheya. This was seen by many as a first step in the repatriation of diaspora Adyghes. Unfortunately, programs to continue such repatriations have since been stopped, either through legal or other means. Russia illegally went against its own constitution and stripped local constitutions of particular laws protecting the indigenous population from alien factors that sought to deteriorate the return of Circassians to their homeland. More than 100 such provisions have since been eliminated, severely hurting any chances Adyghes from overseas might have to go home. Since 1992, five ethnic regions have been liquidated by Russian authorities, and while ten ethnic groups have been considered repressed by Russia and allowed to return, Circassians are not among these peoples.

According to Mr. Berzeg, the Russian government has drastically taken away many fundamental rights that were guaranteed to Circassians in the constitution. Accordingly, the Circassian nation's survival is at stake due to a lack of confidence in the legal system and lack of support in general for any grievances that a typical Circassian might have against local and federal governments. One statute that makes it difficult for diaspora Circassians to return is an acute knowledge of the Russian knowledge, which, quite obviously, many people do not have. However, local constitutional laws state that the only language requirement needed for repatriates was the knowledge of the Adyghe language. Therefore, this federal statute goes against what local law dictates, creating a legal headache for all involved. Till date, repatriation is a practicality only for indigenous peoples of Siberia and the Far East.

Due to difficulties in the North Caucasus region regarding employment and economic opportunities, it is necessary that development must come from the federal government. However, this has been slow in the making, and till today many Caucasians still flock to the larger cities of the Russian Federation and even overseas in order to seek employment and better lives for themselves and their families.

Amidst all this negativity, Mr. Berzeg managed to bring up three positive points during his discussion of the repatriation process:

a) The divisions that the USSR had created among various ethnic groups (regional, ethnic and class) are slowly fading away, therefore allowing small nations to rebuild ties among themselves;

b) Since the end of the communist regime, there has never been such a strong connection between the diaspora and the Circassians in the homeland as there is today. This link is being further helped through the Internet. To date, there are more than seventy five websites concerning Circassians from Turkey and Jordan. If an event were to take place in Maykop, most interested Circassians will be sure to read or hear about the next day, thanks to the Web;

c) In the past, the Russian authorities rarely concerned themselves with what went on outside of their border in regards to their minorities' brethren. However, presently this is beginning to change, with Russia now beginning to take an active interest in what goes on in countries like Turkey and Jordan. While surely there are other factors involved in this sudden interest as well (political and economic, to name a few), this also proves a positive point for Circassians, as hopefully diaspora in other countries can lobby their governments to do more regarding their immediate issues (repatriation and salvation of their cultures in particular).

Mr. Berzeg ended his speech with positive words for the future of the Circassian nation. The Adyghe nation is currently in the midst of redefining what it is to be a Circassian. Restoration of their historical memories is taking place, as well as an increased willingness to not align oneself with only one party affiliation. Several different points of views are now being accepted, which makes Circassians more difficult to pin down in terms of political, economic, and cultural means. This in itself is a reflection of the strength of the Circassian nation- the fact that while their nation was torn apart by alien forces, they still persevered and managed to survive till the present day.

"The Military Jammats in Karachay-Cherkess" was the topic of discussion for Mr. Mairbek Vachagaev, a Chechen national and a doctoral candidate at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales in Paris, France. He touched upon the problems resulting from these jammats and how the local population was dealing with them.

At the end of a lunch break, in which participants and audience members alike congregated to speak about the issues at hand, the conference resumed to focus on Mr. Haci Bayram Bolat. Mr. Bolat was clearly one of the more engaging panelists in the event, speaking passionately about the history of the International Circassian Association (ICA), its current status (which according to him is quite dubious), and the plight of repatriates to the region. Mr. Bolat was himself a repatriate to KBR towards the end of the 1990's, but was arrested and deported by Russian authorities in 2002 for what many view as trivial charges. He successfully took his case to the European Court of Human Rights in 2003 and won it. Mr. Bolat currently lives in Turkey where he works as a managed for a news agency that reports on the Caucasus. In addition to this, Mr. Bolat is involved with non-profit activities and is currently working on related projects.

Mr. Bolat spoke of the situation in Adygheya in general, and noted that the local government there had tried to bring together Chechens and Russians for peaceful discussions during the height of the Chechen war. As most people know, these talks unfortunately did not take place. The Adyghe Khase in Maykop also held anti-war protests, but to no avail. His point in stating these factors was to show the willingness of the Adygheyan government to help bring peace and tranquility to the region.

Sadly, problems were brewing among Circassians themselves. In 1993, the group "Ashemez" changed its name to Adighe Khase. This group was meant to be a platform for local and internationally placed Circassians to come together and brainstorm for ideas on how to help the Circassian nation become stronger. An event took place in the late 1990's with a Mr. Muhammed Hafitse seizing power in the organization (which has since renamed itself the International Circassian Association, or ICA). Since his rise to power within this group, Mr. Hafitse has severely hampered any efforts the group had made. From 2000 till the present time, many social and charitable organizations in the North Caucasus began to be controlled by the Russian government, including ICA. Members of the organization were expected to report on ICA's activities through Mr. Hafitse, who is believed to have dubious ties to the Duma. Leaders from other social groups are also expected to do the same, in addition to reporting on every single activity that took place in their meetings and events. It was also during this time than yet another governmental obstacle was implemented. Budgets created to abet nationalist government were cut drastically, harming further development of these groups and their efforts to do good deeds for their people.

Far fetched statutes came into play regarding repatriation for Circassians, including the following:

1) A town must have enough "room" for all families returning to their homeland;

2) All individuals returning to their Circassian homeland must speak Russian, and;

3) All individuals must pass an exam proving their knowledge of the Russian constitution.

Perhaps the most troubling fact for all of this is that there is not a single civil organization in the Russian Federation that a group or an individual can bring their grievances to. This was proven by Mr. Bolat's case, in which he had to seek due course from the European Human Rights Court for what had occurred to him.

According to Mr. Bolat, the situation is becoming quite dire in the region and will become a troublesome problem for many others who will choose to follow the path he did. It was with this somber mood that his speech then ended.

Mr. Paul Goble, a Professor with the Institute of World Politics in Washington, DC, spoke next. His speech "Are the Circassians Again Looking Beyond Their Borders?" focused on the plight of Circassians living under the Communist regime of the former USSR. From the early 20th century, Circassians were cut off from their brethren in other countries and thus had to rely on one another in order to maintain their identity. This in itself kept Circassian customs, language, and traditions alive during the period of Communism in the former Soviet Union. One can still see the effects of this tragic period in today’s Caucasus. In those days, people were forced to adopt a communal spirit, in lieu with what Russian authorities deemed right.

It was a hostile period for many minorities, since the government had drawn up a list of “acceptable” identities for censuses. Circassians, perhaps not surprisingly, were not on that list. In essence, this was perhaps in itself another tactic that the government used in order to try assimilate them further. While Ajars and other smaller groups were never recognized, the Adyghe nation itself was split in five different groups. A disturbing point that was brought up highlighted the fact that almost 90% of the Circassian nation lived outside of their native land, and this was a situation that was greatly accelerating our assimilation into our host countries. Despite these gloomy statistics, Mr. Goble did bring up five positive points regarding our potential future as a nation:

a) The division (regional/class/ethnic/etc.) that Circassians and several other minorities endured while living under Communist rule for over 70 years is finally starting to fade away;

b) Now more than ever, the links between the diaspora Circassians and the ones living in the homeland have not been as strong as they are today. Hopefully, this trend will continue and grow even stronger;

c) We are currently in the midst of redefining what it is to be a Circassian. Circassians are learning to accept the numerous differences, outlooks, viewpoints, and cultural/religious beliefs among us. This is actually a strongpoint for us, as it makes it more difficult to weaken us as a nation.

After a brief break, Dr. Karpat spoke once more, but this time focused on the status quo of the Circassians in Turkey, starting from the time of the mass exodus in 1864 till the present time. He spoke proudly and warmly about our accomplishments as a nation, and holds high hopes that we will continue to flourish and grow no matter where we are. He was quite optimistic in his hopes that we will one day be able to claim our land back and take our rightful place in history as an ancient and rich culture of the Caucasus region.

The final speaker of the day was Mr. Ziad Hajjo, a Circassian American from New Jersey. Mr. Hajjo spoke about his experiences growing up as a Circassian immigrant from Syria living in the United States, and ended his speech urging the current youth to continue to try to retain our cultural norms and to also be aware of our status as proud citizens of the United States.

The conference ended on this high note, with the audience and panelists alike congratulating one another on its success.

This is the first such event that has been held in the United States regarding the plight of Circassians. It is with high hopes that the Circassian people will strive to create and attend more conferences like this in order to reach out to the global community at large. For too long, the Adyghe people have been dormant. There have been organizations established, cultural centers created, and local groups formed; but one can clearly see that an event such as this one in Washington, DC can reach out to people in ways that these groups cannot. Indeed, the Circassian diaspora must now think clearly, strategically, and carefully about their next steps in the 21st century regarding their past, present, and future as a nation. Certainly, this is a very critical point in their existence, and one that must be carefully weighed. One can only hope that local and national groups will make the proper decisions in regards to these heavy and important issues.

Conference: The Circassians: Past, Present and Future
21 May 2007, Jamestown Foundation, Washington, DC

Circassians in History
By Paul B. Henze, May 2007
This essay is a summary and extension of remarks made at a conference on Circassia sponsored
by the Jamestown Foundation Washington DC, 21 May 2007